Starbucks updates on annual meeting of shareholders Essay

Comparing capital expenditure Introduction                   Certain companies are considered as the front runners in their respective industries judging from their spending and the annual profits they get in their operations. For example, in the search engines industry, Google is well thought –out to be the trailblazer having billions of users. However, there are small companies which try to thrive in the same industries. The small companies possess some unique features which help them to survive in those industries. They distinguish themselves by differentiating their products brand and surroundings to meet their target market needs. Capital expenditure has been used to determine a company’s worth. It focusses on the properties, buildings and the equipment that a company considers as assets. The funds needed to buy, maintain and refurbish these assets are the ones referred to as capital expenditure.                   Centred on the profit margins of a company, the capital expenditure is conjectured as a percentage of the gross profit during equivalent distribution. This paper will contrast the capital expenditure of Starbuck Corporation and Dunkin Brands in the coffee industry of the United States. Starbuck being the frontrunner in the industry and Dunkin as its leading competitor. The paper will focus on the capital expenditure of the two companies for the past three years.                   Dunkin’ Brands Corporation has for years thrived as a competing franchise in the coffee industry. It is the sole owner of two restaurants in the United States, that is, Baskin- Robbins and Dunkin’ donuts. Since it acts as the franchise for these two restaurants, the capital requirements has been lower making it easy to open up the restaurants. Dunkin’ Donuts derives its income from the franchises through royalties and fees. A fraction of the total capital expenditure is incurred by Dunkin’ Brands from these franchisees. It owns a global market share of roughly 23 percent while Starbucks owns around 32.6 percent, leading in the list as far as coffee market is concerned.                   In 2011, the capital expenditure for Dunkin’ Brands mounted to $19 million due to the addition of other outlets in the states. In the same year, the company had incurred huge expenses due to some few factors. These factors include, costs from giving out new stock for public sale from a firm which has already made its preliminary public offering. , loss on debt when the creditor accepts a higher security, and written off goodwill charges from a corporation with South Korea. In the year 2012, the company had incurred capital expenditures of $23.4 million which is considered as restrained bearing in mind the number of site launches.                   In 2013, the capital expenditure for Dunkin’ Brands elevated to $31.1 million. This shows that the value of the expenditure was consistent throughout the three years. The company’s price- earnings ratio had been so low but due to the establishment of new stores the P/E ratio is expected to rise over the next fiscal year. The initial public offering that the company issued, raised funds to settle the long term debt creating a progressive cash flow. In the calculation of capital expenditure of Dunkin’ Brands, the net amount of fixed assets recorded in the financial statements for the previous year is subtracted from the net amount of fixed assets recorded for the year just ended. The amount of depreciation is also done the same and the result is added to the net change of the fixed assets. The final answer is the amount of capital expenditure of the company.                   Starbuck Corporation as the juggernaut in the coffee industry has continued to show growth especially towards the Asian countries ( Byrd,2013). Sales have increased steadily due to their market strategy enabling an equal increase in capital expenditure. The expansion to these Asian countries which include, Chinese/Asian/Pacific division, has been considered as one of the factors that has contributed to the faster growth of the corporation.                   Starbuck Corporation continues to be successful due to the low interest rate that persuade the management to enlarge its capital expenditure. However this may upsurge the total quantity of liabilities on the balance sheet of the corporation. China/ Asian/ Pacific Division has an extraordinary economic growth with interest rates at its lowest making it an enormous and worthwhile investment opportunity caused by the increase in the company’s liabilities.                   The need to increase these liabilities of the company is to capitalize on the returns in that new market environment. Starbuck has incurred some debt which has been getting lower considerably throughout the years. Its financial debt to total debt ratio in 2010 was 11% to 31% in 2013. Initially the decision for Starbuck Corporation to increase its capital expenditure, did not lower the profit margin which was the expectation of many. However, since 2010 to 2013, the profit margins heightened significantly. The company is expected to improve the income GDP per capita worldwide from 2010 which was at $7329 ( Byrd, 2013). This will in turn increase the visits the consumer makes to the stores resulting in growth with foreign revenue by additional 45% in the next 10 years.                   In the company’s annual financial statements, the capital expenditures in the investing activities column shows that in the year 2011 was at $531.9 million. In the year 2012 the amount rose to $856.2 million and $1.15 billion in 2013. The capital expenditure has been consistent over the three years like the Dunkin’ Corporation. This was due to the opening of new stores across the country. Depreciation has grown in the years as a result of increased capital spending and procurements. 2012 has been Starbucks development phase since it increased the new stores to up to 1300. Most of the stores were located in China. The capital expenditure value has been derived from getting the net fixed assets of the preceding year and subtracted it from the net fixed assets of the year just ended. The value is then added to the depreciation amount gotten from the difference between the depreciation value from the year just ended and the preceding year.                   The focus on the company’s capital expenditure has been used to acquire the desired information to determine and predict its future earnings according to financial and accounting models. Managers counter information from the private operation about the future costs and demands over and done with their investment judgements.                   In the quick food service industry, Starbuck Corporation and Dunkin’ Brands are the key participants. They try to counter the rising consumer demands for fast food products. However they are somewhat different since Starbuck Corporation principal concentration is on the expensive coffee, but has trailed on other product lines such as teas and juices. Conversely, Dunkin’ Brands has focussed primarily on marketing their products to everyone by combining coffee and donuts. The rate of growth for Dunkin’ has been considered to be moderately strong by financial analysts, but Starbucks has been a stronger growth with very minimum amount of debt.                   Capital expenditure is the most commonly used determiner for how well a company operates since the funds are used to upgrade an existing business asset or purchasing a new asset for example a new building. The cost or the value of the business assets is always adjusted for tax purposes. Capital expenditure is measured to be deductible for tax determinations, because it signifies an improvement to the industry. The following table represents the capital expenditure comparisons between Starbuck Corporation and Dunkin’ Brands a franchise to the Dunkin’ donuts and Baskin Robbins.(2013). SBUX DNKN Qtrly Rev Growth (yoy): 0.11 0.06 Gross Margin (ttm): 0.57 0.79 Operating Margin (ttm): 0.14 0.39 Net Income (ttm): 1.51B 106.11M P/E (ttm): 33.59 44.29 P/S (ttm): 3.47 6.61 Employees: 160,000 1,104 Revenue (ttm): 14.02B 667.67M EBITDA (ttm): 2.59B 313.12M EPS (ttm): 1.97 0.94 PEG (5 yr expected): 1.61 1.72 Market Cap: 49.50B 4.42B References Starbucks updates on annual meeting of shareholders. (2013). Entertainment Close – Up, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/940899804?accountid=32521 Mergent database in the Ashford University Library. Mergent Online Quick Tips [accessed Nov 14th, 2014] Byrd, J., Hickman, K., & McPherson, M. (2013). Managerial Finance. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education Inc. Source document

Peak Oil and Energy Security Essay

Energy security means having access to the requisite volumes of energy at affordable prices in association with national security and the availability of natural resources for energy consumption. From the perspective of a government concerned and the management of strategic interests, energy security implies energy policies and standby measures that can be implemented in the event of a supply disruption—and at a cost that its citizens consider reasonable. Such measures include energy supply diversification and a certain volume of energy stock. Definitions of Energy Security: The International Energy Agency (IEA) definitions of energy security have focused on the â€Å"adequate supply of energy at a reasonable cost†, and have referred to energy security to be just â€Å"another way of avoiding market distortions† (IEA, 1995). The underlying belief of these definitions is that â€Å"smoothly functioning international energy markets† will deliver â€Å"a secure – adequate, affordable and reliable – supply of energy† (IEA, 2002). IEA has claimed that energy security always consists of both a physical unavailability component and a price component, although their relative importance depends on the market structure (IEA, 2007). The European Commission’s Green Paper (EC 2000) states that energy security also entails respecting environmental concerns and working towards sustainable development. They clarify that the security of supply does not seek to maximize energy self-sufficiency or to minimize dependence, but aims to reduce the risks linked to such dependence. Energy plays an important role in the national security of any given country as a fuel to power the economic engine. Access to cheap energy has become essential to the functioning of modern economies. The modern world relies on a vast energy supply to fuel everything from transportation to communication, to security and health delivery systems. Some sectors rely on energy more heavily than others; for example, the Department of Defense relies on petroleum for approximately 77% of its energy needs. The growing uncertainties about stability and security that exist in the global energy market have fuelled the need for nations to have a comprehensive energy security strategy. Energy security is also essential for the economic growth and development of  countries as energy in-security can hamper the productive activities in the economy as well as undermine consumer welfare. Rapid urbanization and rising middle-class incomes around the world have led to explosive growth in electricity demand. Thus, to the growing urban communities, energy security simply means keeping the lights on. Chester (2010) lists five fundamental aspects that characterize ‘energy security’. Firstly, energy security is about the management of risk – the risk of uninterrupted, unavailable energy supplies; the risk of insufficient capacity to meet demand; the risk of unaffordable energy prices; the risk of reliance on unsustainable sources of energy. These risks may be caused due to energy market instabilities, technical failures or physical security threats. Secondly, the definition of energy security may be framed to reflect a country’s energy mix, the abundance of local resources and import dependence. Thirdly, the term energy security reflects a concept of strategic intent, implying that energy security is not a policy in itself, but that specific policies have to be adopted by governments to achieve the objectives of energy security. Fourthly, energy security has temporal dimensions – the risks and threats to physical supply differ across short, medium and long-term horizons. Short-term risks include terrorism attacks and technical failures. Long-term risks, on the other hand, concern the adequacy of supply to meet demand and adequacy of infrastructure to deliver supply to markets. Fifthly, the term energy security has to be applied keeping in mind the significant differences between the oil, gas, nuclear and other energy markets and infrastructure. As energy is essential for the economic growth and development of a country, it has come to be recognized as a ‘strategic commodity’. This is because any uncertainty in its supply can threaten the effective functioning of an economy (Sahir and Qureshi, 2007). It therefore becomes an imperative for a country to ensure secure energy supplies at affordable rates. This crudely defines the idea of ‘energy security’. Threats to energy security include 1. The political instability (tensions in Northern Iraq, Southern Sudan, the Niger Delta and the East Mediterranean as examples of how competition for energy resources can cause instability) of several energy producing countries. â€Å"Energy should be a motor for development and cooperation, not a source of conflict,† said Mr. Terje Roed-Larsen. 2. The manipulation of energy supplies, 3. The competition over energy sources, 4. Attacks on supply infrastructure and, 5. Dominant countries reliance to the foreign oil supply. 6. Increased world competition for energy resources due to the increased pace of industrialization. Renewable energy Renewable energy resources and significant opportunities for energy efficiency exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency, and technological diversification of energy sources, would result in significant energy security and economic benefits. The deployment of renewable technologies usually increases the diversity of electricity sources and, through local generation, contributes to the flexibility of the system and its resistance to central shocks. For those countries where growing dependence on imported gas is a significant energy security issue, renewable technologies can provide alternative sources of electric power as well as displacing electricity demand through direct heat production. Renewable bio-fuels for transport represent a key source of diversification from petroleum products. Long term measures to increase energy security center on reducing dependence on any one source of imported energy, increasing the number of suppliers, exploiting native fossil fuel or renewable energy resources, and reducing overall demand through energy conservation measures. Facts and Figures: 1. Oil expert Mike Ruppert has claimed that for every calorie of food produced in the industrial world, ten calories of oil and gas energy are invested in the forms of fertilizer, pesticide, packaging, transportation, and running farm equipment. 2. The impact of the 1973 oil crisis and the emergence of the OPEC cartel was a particular milestone that prompted some countries to increase their energy security. 3. Japan, almost totally dependent on imported oil, steadily introduced the use of natural gas, nuclear power, high-speed mass transit systems, and implemented energy  conservation measures. It has become one of the world leaders in the use of renewable energy. 4. India is carrying out a major hunt for domestic oil to decrease its dependency on OPEC, while Iceland is well advanced in its plans to become energy-independent by 2050 through deploying 100% renewable energy. 5. Amount of sun that hits the world in an hour is enough to power the world for one year. With the addition o f solar panels all around the world a little less pressure is taken off the need to produce more oil. 6. Geothermal can potentially lead to other sources of fuel, if heat would be taken from the inner core of the earth to heat up water sources, we could essentially use the steam creating from the heated water to power machines, this option is one of the cleanest and efficient options. 7. Hydro-electric which has been incorporated into many of the dams around the world produces a lot of energy, as the dams control the water that is allowed through seams which power turbines located inside of the dam. 8. Bio-fuels have been researched using many different sources including ethanol and algae, these options are substantially cleaner than the consumption of petroleum. â€Å"Most LCA results for perennial and ligno-cellulosic crops conclude that bio-fuels can supplement anthropogenic energy demands and mitigate Green House Gas emissions to the atmosphere. 9. Juliet Alohan writes on the crucial need for its prioritization in Nigeria. It is estimated that by the year 2022, about two million unemployed Nigerians would be gainfully employed if renewable energy is introduced to complement regular electricity supply. 10. Dr. Sultan Ahmed Al Jaber, UAE special envoy for energy and climate change, and CEO of Masdar, said: â€Å"With energy demand predicted to grow nearly 50% over the next 20 years, competition for resources will increase. Energy is therefore becoming a key piece of the global security puzzle. Any significant move to solve the energy crisis is also a step toward creating peace and stability among the nations of the world.† 11. The Renewable Energy Global Status report showed that by the end of 2011, total renewable power capacity worldwide exceeded 1,360 Giga Watt (GW), up to 8 per cent over what it was in 2010. The report added that renewable energy supply constituted more than 25 per cent of total global power-generating capacity, which is estimated at 5,360GW in 2011. Case Study: Energy Security Context in India Sudarshan and Noronha (2009) lay out five important factors that have contributed to increasing energy demand in India. First, the real income of India has grown at a rate of 6-7% per annum over the past two decades, and the Planning Commission of India has a future targeted growth rate of 8-10% per annum for the next decade. TERI (2006) estimates that India will require 2023 MTOE (Million Tonnes of Oil Equivalent) of energy by the year 2031 to feed such economic growth rates. Second, a structural shift has been taking place in India, which has accelerated since the 1991 economic reforms. This shift is from agriculture towards the services sector, which is relatively energy intensive. Next, an annual population increase of about 1.9% p.a. has been observed over the past two decades. Importantly, the urban population in India was 25.5% in 1990 and is expected to rise to 40% by 2030. Given per capita energy demand in rural areas is low, this will further feed into India’s gross energy demand. Fourth, there is a growing transport sector. Fifth, an energy transformation is taking place, with a shift from biomass to electricity in rural India. Further, as of 2005, only 55% of rural Indian households had electricity access. Electricity demand is expected to rise, even as the government has significant plans to meet the demand (Planning Commission, 2008). Increasing import dependence of India on fossil fuel-rich countries has hence forced the government to rethink the way India engages with these countries. Given the factors influencing the demand and consumption of energy in India, the Planning Commission of India defined energy security by modifying the definition of energy security given by The World Energy Assessment (UNDP 1999) to suit the Indian context better. This definition is accepted by the Indian government, and it is as follows: â€Å"We are energy secure when we can supply lifeline energy to all our citizens irrespective of their ability to pay for it as well as meet their effective demand for safe and convenient energy to satisfy their various needs at competitive prices at all times and with a prescribed confidence level considering shocks and disruptions that can be reasonably expectedà ¢â‚¬  (Planning Commission, 2006) This definition includes the key aspects of energy security, including those related to poverty and economic growth. The idea that the provision of energy ought to be â€Å"irrespective of their ability to pay† is a slight departure from the definitions of energy security  accepted by several nations, which tend to be market oriented. By factoring in poverty and the inability of India’s citizens to pay for energy, it only stops short of according energy the status of a ‘right’. The income distribution angle is hence incorporated in the definition. Additionally, this definition accounts for India’s import dependency of energy and the possibility of disruptions in the supply. There is also a veiled reference to what would be considered an appropriate level of risk, although this has not been quantified due to the uncertainties involved. In the context of India’s energy security needs, Verma (2007) lays out a two principles to maintain energy security. He states that firstly, India must diversify the supply of energy, both by location and source. Secondly, he states that the resilience of energy systems must be maintained, which is a reference to â€Å"security margins† that act as buffers against shocks and provide facilities for recovery after disruptions. Resilience can come through spare capacity, strategic reserves, backup supplies of equipment, adequate storage capacity along supply change and the stocking of critical components of electricity generation. Any policy measures taken by the government need to thus needs to incorporate these conceptual frameworks. Understanding these concepts is necessary in order to pursue rational policy making in the energy domain. Of course, policy implementation would ultimately revolve around day-to-day governance issues, and fiscal, administrative and political bottlenecks.

Characteristics of a Person

Characteristics of Personhood Rationality The ability to reason is seen as being one of the defining characteristics of personhood. Rationality can be summarised in our ability to make considered choices and decisions at a higher intellectual level. Rationality is illustrated in our ability to justify our thoughts and actions through reason, scaled to emotional or practical variables. Aristotle considered that the thought-processes that precede our actions are pivotal to personhood.Such thought-processes generally involve evaluating the positive and negative consequences of our actions, and deciding whether the ‘reward’ is worth the ‘cost’. This ability to predict consequences of our actions isn’t shared by the lower animals, and is pivotal in making the distinction between a person and a non-person. We have the ability to justify our beliefs and actions and to enter into reasoned dialogue with others. Rationality also leads to the ability to evaluate experience and draw logical, considered conclusions which will influence our actions in the future.The lesser animals lack this capability, a view which is illustrated in the following example: the squirrel stores food for the winter in order to survive, however the squirrel does not store food because it knows that food will be scarce in the winter; the squirrel stores food because of impulses governed by animalistic instinct, and nothing besides. The squirrel could not consider the possibility of an abundance of food in the winter, and decide that it did not wish to store food for the winter, and is confined to the demonstration of instinct.To further illustrate this point we could say that dogs have desires but they do not have choices. For example, when a piece of meat is left unattended, a dog would see it and eat it straight away because it desires the meat and has no regard as to whom it belongs or whether eating the meat would be of benefit to it. In this sense, animals suc h as dogs act on the basis of their desires. On the other hand, we as humans would firstly deliberate between the pros and cons of what to do with this piece of meat, taking into account the various factors and potential consequences of eating it.Humans will not simply act on the basis of their desires but will make a decision and then perform an action according to the decision that we make through our rationality. Possessing a network of beliefs Possessing a network of beliefs is a characteristic that predominately distinguishes humans as persons, as opposed to animals. A network of beliefs can be formed on the basis of reasons in accordance with our rational nature as persons are able to reflect upon the relative strengths and weaknesses of the evidence of these beliefs, basing our belief system on what others tell us and on our own experiences.It is believed that in comparison to most animals, humans have a much more complex network of beliefs. For example, a dog may avoid eatin g chocolate because of a bad experience devouring a whole box – but it is doubtful that the dog is able consciously to hold the belief that â€Å"chocolate makes me sick†. A human, however, has the ability to make a rational decision from past experiences and act upon this belief.For example, if a person eats chocolate and is allergic to it and is thus made ill by it, through a network of wider beliefs such as â€Å"allergies causing illness†, â€Å"the feeling of being ill being horrible†, etc a person can deduce that â€Å"chocolate makes me sick and therefore I won’t eat it again†. Unlike animals we can have beliefs about the past and future and refer to these beliefs as the past and future; an animal may remember something as a belief from the past such as the chocolate but can only see how it will affect the present.We can also have beliefs about beliefs; humans have the ability to hold beliefs about possibilities and things that may ha ppen in the future, whereas animals can only have beliefs about the actual and fact. Language User Language users are beings who can communicate with others through a range of mediums. This means that they are able to talk about ideas in the abstract. Furthermore, language is necessary for the possession of genuine ideas and concepts about the world. Language allows people to understand their desires; without language, beings would be unable to communicate and request their desires.For example, a cow can feel hungry and desire grass but it doesn’t know that it desires grass and feels hungry because it does not have those concepts. These concepts are human linguistic concepts. A creature’s mental horizon is broadened by the ability to represent the world by signs. Language gives the user the ability to express thoughts about an infinite number of things. Furthermore language allows the intelligent construction of arguments; it allows the user to criticize and justify. M oreover, language permits a new king of socializing, based upon discussions.It allows interaction and develops personalities. Language broadens people’s knowledge and their emotions. All of these examples mean that one is a person if one can use language. This is because language allows you to formulate your thoughts and having thoughts and self-awareness means you have the capacity to understand the thoughts of others. This means you are a person. Self Awareness Self awareness is the ability to experience and do things whilst understanding what it is that’s going on and having an awareness of the fact that it is ‘I’ that is having the experiences.Descartes defines self awareness as having a conscious mind. He believed that using speech and reason were good examples of the mind working. He uses this theory to eliminate animals from what he classes as a person, and in turn describes them as ‘nothing more than a complex machine. ’ However, altho ugh we are unable to know whether an animal is self-conscious or not, they are clearly conscious in the sense that they are aware of their surroundings and at times can be unconscious. However, consciousness is not the same as self-consciousness.Another way in which self awareness can be described is by a person’s ability to talk about themselves using words such as ‘I’ or ‘mine’. It is the ability to describe ones mental state to others and to understand them from the first-person point of view. Looking back upon your memories is another example and knowing that it is ones self that has experienced these memories. A good example to illustrate self-awareness is the ‘mark test’. This is where a mark is placed on the head of a participant who is then placed in front of a mirror.If the participant tries to wipe the mark off their reflection in the mirror, then it is argued that they do not recognise the reflection in the mirror as them and therefore lack self-awareness. If, however, they wipe the mark off their foreheads, then clearly they understand that the reflection in the mirror is them and they therefore have a sense of self. Infant humans beyond the age of 24 months, as well as some animals such as apes, dolphins and elephants, can successfully complete the test whereas other animals are not.This shows that self-awareness is not a characteristic that can be associated with all animals and as such may be a way of distinguishing between animals and persons. Social Being One characteristic that is thought to be essential for personhood is that of being a social being. Humans, unlike other animals, have a â€Å"prior awareness† of the existence of other human beings. We identify ourselves in the context of our relationships with other human beings and through our various roles in society. Arguably, we can only recognise ourselves as a person if we have prior awareness of the existence of other such persons.T hroughout life, humans form complex social relationships with others which they often maintain and develop. Human beings have a more developed society than animals such as dogs and horses due to the fact that humans have plans, intentions and schemes. They are individuals but this individuality stems from society. This inherent social nature is dependant upon our ability to communicate, allowing us to establish social roles and connect with others. Through this we see our own identity, as belonging to groups: work, culture, nationality and so on. Arguably, our â€Å"persona† might be largely formed because of these networks.To have a good life, we must interact with others in order to be able to reflect upon our own selves. In this sense, persons depend on society for not only specific ambitions and goals but also for language, beliefs and to compare themselves to other individuals. It is through this that we can discover the best way to live and therefore hopefully live a go od life. We cannot achieve a good life in isolation as we cannot share our thoughts and feelings with other people. Human beings are social animals and it can be argued that being a person necessarily involves having complex relationships with others.Penguins huddle together for warmth, instinctively, not for any reason more complex than this. They don’t have meetings, parties or â€Å"heart to hearts†, and wouldn’t later reflect upon this, or develop because of it. Creativity, autonomy and individuality Autonomy is the ability to reason about whether to perform an action or not and suggests that persons are not controlled by our natural instincts, unlike animals. It appears that a person is not entirely influenced by basic instinct, and can refer to more complex thoughts and ideas in decision making.This is shown through the example that a dog does not reflect on whether to bark at the stranger in the street, or continue to go about its own business in the shad e, whereas a person will often reflect upon the reasons for and against acting upon their immediate desires. A person is able to rise above their basic animal drives and take a measure of control over their own lives. By enabling us to reflect on how to act, reason gives us some mastery over our passions, elevating us above the level of creatures of instinct.The capacity to reflect and reason gives us a measure of autonomy or self-control. Individuality allows each person to identify and emphasize the uniqueness of each of us and it is argued that an individual person is defined not so much by their shared human essence as by the particular characteristics of his or her own nature. Human beings in all societies give themselves proper names which uniquely identify them as individuals and some philosophers have argued that it is a natural tendency for all human beings to construct a unique personality.Also, animals appear to have no concept of creativity or imagination and only experi ence things for what they are. For example, an animal would not understand metaphor, because a metaphor is a representation of something else, and an animal cannot fathom this concept. Yet, people do have the ability to be creative and imaginative. Moral Sense Having a moral sense means that we are able to decide what we should and shouldn’t do, to identify what is good and bad, and to label actions moral or immoral. Kant says that a person uses their moral principles and this determines their actions.He also says that we, as moral persons, are able to recognise what our duties are and then we can further choose whether to act in accordance with these duties. Acting in accordance with our moral duties rather than our desires is what makes our actions truly free as we can transcend our desires in order to do what we see we ought to. For example, although we may not want to give ? 5 to famine relief, we realise that we ought to and recognising this duty can motivate us to act o n it. Morals tend to be related to humans, as animals don’t have the notion of orality. For example, in the case of a lion killing an antelope for food, we see this as an act of survival; therefore we cannot blame the lion for being immoral. However if a human killed an antelope for sport it could spark a moral debate, as some people would agree with it and some people would think it immoral. If we can’t attribute morals to animals, but we can attribute morals to humans, then there is a distinct difference between the two. This distinction illustrates that maybe we only attribute morals to persons.

Two papers Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Two papers - Assignment Example Discrimination can be overcome by encouraging diversity and making it an unacceptable action. It should be discouraged in all interactions and instead promote cultural diversity as a better alternative to interact with others. 2. What are the potential challenges posed by differences in nonverbal communication when communicating across cultures or communicating interracially? Provide two examples of specific types of nonverbal communication and describe the challenges they pose. What potential solutions can you suggest for overcoming these challenges? One of the major challenges posed by differences in nonverbal communication when communicating across cultures is miscommunication. A certain action, body language or sign may be construed as something else by the recipient thereby resulting in misunderstanding. People must be aware of this differences to avoid any miscommunication. Non-verbal communication is very important in communication process because they comprise majority of the message. In a study by Zhijing Chen (2009), she reported that one of the findings of a study in communication conducted in the United States, 93 percent messages were transmitted through nonverbal behaviours while only 7% were transmitted through the explicit verbal language. This means that nonverbal communication is very important in communicating across cultures. Two classic examples is the V sign where the two fingers are protruded with the face palm out signifying peace or victory in the US and other cultures such as Philippines. The V sign however is taken differently in Indonesia where it just meant number two. Another glaring example is the pointing of finger where one will use his index finger to point at people or objects. This is harmless in the US and is used to identify people or objects. In Asia however, this could mean trouble because

News Media Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

News Media Analysis - Essay Example The audience was also involved with their input made through a live chat on the anchor’s Twitter page (foxnews.com). From the onset, the presentation was all inclusive with the guest granted equal chances to express their opinions on the Democrat – Republican divide. The target audience were adult voting Americans with guests discussing issues related to the upcoming US presidential elections. Being a morning show, the stories were too political with very minimal informative material. My opinion of a morning show is that it should get comprehensively informative with highlights of major news at the start of the bulletin and later focus on core topic of discussion. This was not the case with politics being the sole top of discussion. With several other issues touching and of significance to the audience totally ignored. With regards to the political ‘target audience’, the newscast did half justice. Evaluation into what would woo the Latino and women voters w as well disused with the guests providing comprehensive insights into the task ahead for the presidential candidates if they were to win these two constituencies. Sue Kelly who was representing the voice of the Republican Party and women voters provided a comprehensive statistical breakdown of the performance of women in congress over the years in relation to the GOP and the Democratic Party which was of only of intersect to find out, but also left viewers more informed. Chuck on the other hand made contributions that provided viewers with a chance to take a journey through the mind of a Latino voter and as it turned out, immigration was a major determinant of the voting patterns of the Hispanics. The broad cast was particularly very long with the political discussion lasting over 30 minutes which is not proper for a morning show that should always provide very brief and informative insights into the day’s main events and leave the viewers with the urge for more. That was not the case in this broadcast. The provision of viewers input through a live chat was of particular significance as it provided the all inclusiveness required in a political debate. There were five commercials and these were very appropriate as they all targeted an adult audience. Commercials on fitness were particularly relevant given the time of broadcast. The commercials were on fitness equipments, breakfast food products, cars and travel with one advert on a transatlantic airline. These commercials served the intended purpose of reaching the target audience since viewers of the show are adults who make purchase decisions on what their families have for breakfast, their fitness issues, travel options and the brand of car to purchase. The commercials were however few given the duration of the broadcast. There should have been numerous ads during the political discussion to break the monotony of argument that went on. The informality of the set was equally unappealing; the anchor con versed quite informally with very inappropriate interruptions that were mostly personal as the debate went on at some point telling one of the guests, Mr. Chuck about where and how young she was in 19988 when the later made reference to the year to provide historical information on the past administrations’

The Civil Liberties and Unlawful Government Surveillance Personal Statement

The Civil Liberties and Unlawful Government Surveillance - Personal Statement Example It is evidently clear from the discussion that although new technologies have emerged, it has enabled the government to unlawfully spy on people thereby infringing on their individual liberties. Unlawful government surveillance should be fought because it interferes with the right to the constructive dissident opinion as well as increase anxiety in personal spaces. The principles of the First Amendment place values such as the freedom to expression, inquiry, and association at its core. It is essential to review the right to privacy in the context of advances in sciences and technology because these developments make private lives more visible. The right to privacy forms a fundamental part of the welfare of every individual. This is crucial at two levels. To begin with, it is notable that most of the developments that society enjoys today arose out of the capacity for an individual to have unmonitored behavior and thinking. For instance, most scientific innovations arose out of inten sive thinking, solitude, and privacy. At the second level, the entitlement to privacy highly benefits the individual since it eliminates anxiety and limits the government authority over the established individual liberties. The American nation is at the center of this debate because of terrorism linked surveillance. Government surveillance, however, never started at 9/11 terrorist attacks. As early as the 1960’s, the government adopted surveillance technologies that would greatly constrain the private space. The Fourth Amendment description of Bill of Rights forbids unreasonable searches unless a search is propped by a reasonable cause and is supported by a judicial action. The FISA Act of 1978, however, allows for the collection of information, without a court order, about the activities of individuals, which may be deemed harmful to the state. On the other hand, the UN recognized the detriment of such laws and counteracted by forming Article 17 of ICCPR, which prohibits unl awful searches of persons.

Seniors and aging Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Seniors and aging - Essay Example There are difficulties seen in the abilities to cope with â€Å"the complex and socially angiogenic world†. These difficulties would increase the dependence of the seniors on psycho-therapeutic support (Mermet, 2005). I agree with author and recommend this to others. The article is significant in that it provides information on the increase in the proportion of seniors in society, their needs and desires, and the possibility of their inability to cope with the world that is become more complex. Hence the likelihood of the requirement of enhanced psycho-therapeutic support for the seniors. It is for these reasons that this article has been included. In the United States of America, the seniors form the segment of population having the highest risk for suicides. This becomes clear from the figures provided by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention for the year 2004. The average suicide rate in the U.S. is eleven for every hundred thousand people, but rises to fourteen per hundred thousand people in the age group of sixty-five and older. Expert opinion suggests that seniors are less likely to seek help and their suicide attempts are more likely to lead to death. Hence there is the need to extend help to the elderly. In spite of all this information the response of society shows lack of concern and the willingness to a lot finances. Ten states have introduced laws in 2006 to curb suicides among children and young adults. Yet, only two states have passed legislation addressing the issue of suicides among senior citizens. This means that the elderly have fewer treatment options for their depressed state than the younger citi zens. This article is thought provoking and recommended for reading. Mermet (2005) has suggested that the complexities of the modern world are likely to increase the requirement of psycho-therapeutic support for the seniors, and this article clearly indicates the need for this enhanced support. The significance of this article lies

Green Computing Research Project Part 2 Assignment

Green Computing Research Project Part 2 - Assignment Example The total budget of the project is $500,000, from which $200,000 will be applied for procuring the hardware, allied equipment, research document and allied tasks. Whereas, the remaining balance would be utilized for recruitment, project staffing, and allied items. The goal of the project is to provide an extensive research report that would specify the financial analysis, recommendations for green technology implementation and recommended solution forms. The report would contain a list of all the green technologies, with details of only those which would have been agreed by all the stakeholders. The details of green technology would include, but not limited to the implementation process, time and cost along with a cost-benefit analysis. The forms would include only the recommended green technologies along with their formal project proposals. The information that would be provided in the research document would be accurate, concise, consistent and complete in all respects.

Analysis Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Analysis Paper - Essay Example Moreover, he has even-keel temperament and has ability for consensus-building. He's also a talented, introspective writer. However, Barrack Obama is more discussed from political and presidential point of view. This research paper discusses different forums where people have given their true opinions or reflections about Mr. Barack Obama. Reflections on Barack Obama The people opinions or reflections from online blogs, social networking websites, newspapers and articles are summarized as follows Online Blogs In an online blog, answering a question an individual stated that Barak Obama is the best president up till now the US has elected (Scifiman, 2007). Another user commented that he is a very courageous man who is continuously trying his best to satisfy the needs of the country. Moreover, his promise to make Washington work more transparent is appreciated. People have remarked him as hard worker who hasn’t turned his back on anyone. Some people appreciate the work of Mr. Oba ma commenting that all countries must have a president like him to make world a safer and gentle planet (Newbie, 2007). People have wished him success in all upcoming years and want him back again as president of US. Moreover, people believe that he is the one who will keep promise to strengthen US nation and will improve the lives of American nation (Troxler, 2008). Cammillie (n.d.) says that President Obama is better than the rest of the people and therefore he should be re-elected. Sarcastically, some people view him as best teleprompter reading (Sheltan, 2007). Although, he did well very little; but his speeches are heard by many. Moreover, Orson Scott Card (2008) comments that Obama's limited attitude about global warming and energy will add cost burden on America's poor people. Obama’s views on war are disagreed by most of the people. Deborah (n.d.) says that US must now stop invading other as the burden is shifted towards American taxpayer. Paying taxes kills American people. Moreover, people are against war which has resulted in sowing many social evil factors within American society such as drug abuse, disability, depression etc. People are more of view to have peaceful life. Rossmarie (n.d.) says that Obama is deceiving US nation by pretending that he is a transparent, moderate and unifying candidate. Moreover, he is destroying US military. Bobbie (n.d.) comments that Barrack Obama is a cold-hearted US hater who is somewhat responsible for the high debt that the country is facing in its history. Social Networking Websites Barack Obama is being discussed on Social media websites as well such as face book and twitter. Many face book pages are created on Barack Obama were people writes their comments, add videos, images etc. A quick survey of face book page shows that more people like him as their leader and have positive reviews regarding his presidency. The only thing that people discourages about his leadership is the increased tax burdens and war killings. However, besides appreciating US president, some people are against him and do not like his leadership. Slogans such as Go-Obama and No-Obama were observed my few individuals (Barrack Obama (b), 2012.). Similarly, social networking users have tweeted Barack Obama’s page on Twitter where the people’s opinion and discussions are same as that in face book (Barrack Obama News, 2012). Newspapers and articles New York Times has encouraged Obama as his victory is evidenced as he took

Science of Babies Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Science of Babies - Lab Report Example It has been noted that there are some of the things which, babies are good at doing than adults. These ranges from basic statistical formulations, faster learning about the world and the environment. In contrary, adults are good in planning than babies. It is not necessary for the parents to be smart to help their children in learning, but it depends on the child. Recognition of babies can assist psychologists in finding out responses to some questions regarding imaginations, morality, love, truth and consciousness. In most cases, these things affect the way people operate  in their adult lives. It, therefore becomes of much significance to be known at the earlier stage of life.  This report has implications emanating from the complexity in which the human brain can change making it hard to have certainty. According to the above  findings, babies  should have maximum freedom  and space to play because this is the only way they  can  learn faster. There should be supportive environment with resources in place to ensure that babies have clear space to

The Earth Energy-Balance Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Earth Energy-Balance - Term Paper Example According to a study in the United States, more than 200 million sources of air pollutions are added into the atmosphere every year which is equal to 1760 pounds of pollutants per person. For instance Acid rain is the major source of causing air pollution because it damages lakes, streams, vegetation and wildlife. Another major issue impacting the human lives is global warming because the level of carbon dioxide has exceeded up to 40 % since the year 1860. In the recent years over the 134 years, there has been the highest amount of temperature change. Southern and northern ice caps have been warming us for centuries but what will happen if these caps had melted? Therefore, the constant disappearing of plants, use of fossil fuels is the reason which causes the greenhouse effect. My design takes the environment into consideration and brings attention towards something that is very important to all the people in the world being carelessly neglected. There are many ways through which we can restore importance by ignoring our many habits. Most Americans feel that they have mastered over the nature and environment and they have a complete faith in technology. When they face the environmental crisis like shortage of gas and oil then they believe that â€Å"science will save us† but belief on technology’s role in environmental problems is highly premature because science is not the answer to every environmental problem.

The path of blood Essay Example for Free

The path of blood Essay The path blood take from the right femoral vein to lower lobe of the right lung via the pulmonary artery is as follows; we start in the right femoral vein which is located in the thigh and travel to the right external iliac vein. Blood from the femoral vein emptiness in the inferior vena cava but first must travel through the external iliac. The iliac vein joins with the inferior vena cava. The inferior vena cava takes deoxygenated blood form the lower limbs of the body to the right atrium (Thibodeau, Patton, 2008. ). Following the inferior vena cava we travel in to the right atrium of the heart. The purpose of right atrium of the heart is to receive deoxygenated blood from the body through the inferior vena cava and pump it into the right ventricle (MedicineNet.com, 2012). Once we are ready to leave the right atrium we go into the right AV valve (AV is atrioventricular or cuspid, (Thibodeau, Patton, 2008.).The AV valve stops blood from flowing backwards and every time the heart beats the valve opens and closes. The AV valve allows blood to flow into the right ventricle. But before blood goes into the right ventricle it has to travel through the tricuspid valve. The tricuspid valve along with AV and SL are all structures that prevent blood from flowing backwards (Thibodeau, Patton, 2008.). So we now know that the right ventricle receives deoxygenated blood from the right atrium, but what we don’t already know is that the right ventricle sends the [continues]

Knowledge Management in Malaysia

Knowledge Management in Malaysia CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 OVERVIEW It is so difficult and though for the managers of the organizations to apply knowledge management in their departments, because this major is still new in so many aspects such as business environment and organizational culture or behavior and it has a long way to be completed. It is hard for the managers to believe that, it has so many benefits if they use knowledge management tools in their organizations. Managers should bear in their mind that knowledge management is not an automatic practice, it must be initiated by people and have the support of the whole organization. Something like these myths need to be eliminated and the exact meaning of knowledge management must be clearly understood by managers and the rest of the organizations. This will help the managers to abundantly getting help from knowledge management and apply it in the organizations (Sobahle 2005). The study on American Productivity and Quality Centers International Bench-marking shows that, about 11 organizations are working on the knowledge management area which are: Arthur Andersen; Chevron Corporation; Dow Chemical Company; Hughes Space Communications; Kaiser Permanente; Price Waterhouse; Sequent Computer Systems; Skandia AFS; Texas Instruments; USAA; and National Security Agency, the following was recognized (Ishak, 2002): Share the understanding those techniques which can be used. Apply the techniques to new directions. Further more, the other issues which can assure the success of knowledge management initiatives are something like, emphasizes on the issues such as employees issues, top management leadership and commitment, organizational culture and technological infrastructure. This chapter approaches the literature review on knowledge management. In this chapter the try is made to clarify some of the most important key factors of knowledge management and analyze their respective literature. The attempt is made to show the different aspects of knowledge management. It has a brief introduction on knowledge management which is used by Malaysian organizations then it will be explain about the knowledge management frame works and architectures. In this chapter the most two important factors in knowledge management which, technological approach and human approach, are considered. This chapter will finish by the knowledge management concern, issues and at last discuss about the benefit of knowledge management will be considered. 2.2 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN MALAYSIA Over past two decades Malaysia has been transitioning from relying on a production based- economy to a knowledge-based economy (Chang, 2005). The concept of knowledge management in Malaysia was born with the establishment of the â€Å"Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC)† in 1990s to accelerate this concept in Malaysia. Actually, there are so many Malaysian companies which they are working on knowledge management and they realize and understand the importance of it in the professional life. In January 15, 2002, one of the prestigious magazines in Malaysia, Computerworld Malaysia organized the Knowledge Management Roundtable ‘A Vital Strategy or Expensive Toy. The participants from various sectors in Malaysia shared their point of views and approaches implemented and exchanged ideas in practicing knowledge management (Chang, 2005). As an example for the practical aspect, there are a number of organizations in Malaysia which are successful in knowledge management initiatives, such as: Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic Systems (MIMOS), MAMPU, Bank Negara Malaysia, Siemens, Nokia Malaysia and Telekom Malaysia, Tenaga Nasional Berhad and Petroleum Nasional Berhad (Petronas) are examples of organizations in Malaysia that have embarked on KM initiatives. There are so many studies on knowledge management in Malaysia, and the structure of Malaysia papers in Malaysia seems to be incomprehensive, there are a few number of out standing articles to mention, which shows in table 2.1. Table 2.1: Knowledge Management: Malaysian Studies Title Author/ Date/Journal Nature of Work Intellectual capital and business performance in Malaysian industries Bontis, Chua Richardson (2000) Journal of Intellectual Capital Research Study (Conducted among Malaysian firms) Knowledge management in healthcare: towards ‘knowledge-driven decision- support services Abidi, (2001) International Journal of Medical Informatics Case Study (Universiti Sains Malaysia Hospital located in Kota Baharu, Malaysia) Managing human resources toward achieving knowledge management Yahya Goh, (2002) Journal of Knowledge Management Research Study (Conducted among Malaysian firms) Knowledge management in a public organization: a study on the relationship between organizational elements and the performance of knowledge transfer. Syed Ikhsan Rowland, (2004) Journal of Knowledge Management Case Study (Ministry of Entrepreneur development of Malaysia) Benchmarking knowledge management in a public organization in Malaysia Syed Ikhsan Rowland, (2004) Benchmarking: An International Journal Case Study (Ministry of Entrepreneur development of Malaysia) An empirical study of perceived importance and actual implementation of knowledge management process in the Malaysian telecommunication industry Chong Yeow, (2005) Proceedings of ICTM Research Study (Study among Malaysian telecommunication Industry KM critical success factors: A comparison of perceived importance versus implementation in Malaysian ICT companies. Chong, (2006) The Learning Organization Research Study (194 Malaysian ICT companies) KM implementation in Malaysian telecommunication industry an empirical analysis. Wei, Choy Yeow, (2006) Industrial Management Data Systems Research Study (289 employees working in Telecommunication organizations in Malaysia) KM implementation and its influence on performance: an empirical evidence from Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies Chong, (2006) Journal of Information and Knowledge Management Research Study (Study among Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies) Exploring KM issues and KM performance outcomes: empirical evidence from Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies Chong Lin (2006) International Journal of Technology Management Research Study (Study among Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies) An exploratory study on knowledge management adoption in the Malaysian Industry. Wong, (2008) International Journal of Business Information Systems Research Study (exploratory KM survey conducted in the Malaysian industry) 2.3 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IMPLEMENTATION FRAMEWORKS According to Von Krogh (1998), which he takes a business perspective stating that KMS help increase competitiveness, the purpose of implementing KMS in organizations are various. KMS leads to grater innovation and responsiveness, Hackbarth (1998). Davenport and Prusak (1998) provide three reasons why KMS are implemented in organizations which are as follows: Ø To enhance visibility of knowledge in organizations through the use of maps, hypertexts, yellow pages, directories etc. Ø To build a knowledge sharing culture i.e. create avenues for employees to share knowledge. Ø To develop a knowledge infrastructure, not confined to technology solely, rather create an environment that permits collaborative work. These three things which were proposed by Davenport and Prusak (1998) imply that KMS can support an organization in planning for and dealing with emergencies. Many organizations are still wrestling with their knowledge management and failing to realize its full potential. This is due to their lack of the support of strong theoretical foundation to guide them in its implementation (Wong Aspinwall, 2004). Unfortunately, many organizations do not have a clear knowledge management implementation plan in mind (Liebowitz, 1999). Therefore, in order for an organization to be victorious in its effort to manage knowledge, a guiding framework is essential. This is why in this part a review of diverse knowledge management implementation frameworks and models is presented. The framework consents to researchers as well as practitioners to measure the current state of knowledge management effectively and systematically. Thus, the knowledge management framework should provide not only a unified view of knowledge management phenomena but also help investigators study the field of knowledge management in an organized way. There have been few efforts to de velop a framework of knowledge management. However, none of the frameworks can provide a complete and generalized frame for knowledge management by defining fundamental attributes of knowledge management and their interrelationships because knowledge management can be viewed differently on ones background and interests (Chong, 2005). To know the exact value of knowledge management, an architecture of it, would provide the necessary understanding of different components like, knowledge management activities, knowledge management resources, knowledge management influences (Holsapple Joshi, 1997). The improvement of a framework is to follow and track the progress and maturity of knowledge management of an enterprise, so, it would serve to support the industry-wide improvement of knowledge management programs. Further more, it would provide an acceptable frame of reference for the assessment of the adequacies of an organization by government, commercial customers and prime contractors (Chong, 2005). The knowledge management frameworks can be classified under four categories (Table 2.2) Which are namely, knowledge creation framework, knowledge cycle processes of knowledge management, cases on knowledge management initiatives in industry and high-level knowledge management frameworks. Table 2.2: KM Frameworks and their examples in the literature Knowledge Management Frameworks Examples Knowledge Creation Framework Nonaka(1991, 1994), Nonaka Takeuchi (1995) Knowledge Cycle Processes of KM Bose Sugumaran (2003) Cases on KM Initiatives in Industry Apostolou Mentzas (1998), Lai chu (2002) High-Level KM Frameworks Holsapple Joshi (2002), Jarrar (2002), Wiig (1997) Nonaka and Takeuchi are tried to explain the progress and adaption between tacit and explicit knowledge. In fact, knowledge creation framework is not a knowledge management framework, the reason is, and it only deals with the creation of knowledge which is only a share of what constitutes knowledge management. Also, the knowledge cycle processes of knowledge management frameworks are providing a set of activities where the prominence is on the knowledge cycle processes or activities. They mainly address the phases of knowledge flow (from creation to application) in an organization without providing guidance on how to implement knowledge management. The framework on knowledge management initiatives in industry provide a reference to facilitate the structuring, analysis and evaluation of the knowledge management initiatives undertaken in various case companies. Lastly, High-Level knowledge management frameworks are the ones providing more detailed directions on the implementation of kn owledge management. This type of framework seems to address not only the question of what is but also how to because it prescribes and suggest ways for organizations to engage in knowledge management activities (Wong Aspinwall, 2004). In their review of literature, Wong and Aspinwall, try to have an organized review of the various available frameworks for knowledge management implementation. The acceptable thing for the review was to classify the knowledge management implementation frameworks, find out the short comings of each and finally suggesting a through guide line for developing knowledge management implementation frameworks. They have classified the high level knowledge management frameworks as frameworks such as: 1) System approach, 2) Step approach, 3) hybrid approach.(Table 2.3, 2.4, 2.5 shows the comparisons between frameworks under each approach). Table 2.3: Comparisons of system approach frameworks Source: Wong Aspinwall (2004) Holsapple Joshi (2002) Jarrar (2002) Gore Gore (1999) Wiig et al. (1997) Plan - Set strategic priority Define and understand knowledge Formulate vision Conceptualize Reflect Execute - - - Act Evaluate - - - Review Knowledge Types / resources Knowledge embedded in participants, culture, infrastructure, artifacts, purpose and strategy - Tacit Knowledge Explicit knowledge - KM processes / activities Acquire, select, internalize and use knowledge Collect, present, distribute and measure knowledge Mainly focuses on knowledge creation and externalization Develop, distribute, combine and consolidate knowledge KM influences / factors Resource influences, managerial influences, environmental influences Knowledge environment - External and internal developments ‘-, not indicated or not clearly indicated Table 2.4: Comparisons of step approach frameworks Source: Wong Aspinwall (2004) McCampbell et al. (1999) Wiig (1999) Plan Form powerful coalition Communicate vision of KM Establish teams for needs assessment Analyze the needs of KM Obtain management buy-in Survey and map the knowledge landscape Plan the knowledge strategy Create and define knowledge-related alternatives and potential initiatives Portray benefit expectations for knowledge management initiatives Set knowledge management priorities Determine key knowledge requirements Execute Identify and collect knowledge Design a technological structure Test the technology Maintenance of the technology Retest the technology Training of knowledge workers Roll out the use of KM practices Make systems go live Acquire key knowledge Create integrated knowledge transfer programs Transform, distribute and apply knowledge assets Establish and update a KM infrastructure Manage knowledge assets Construct incentive programs Coordinate KM activities and functions enterprise-wide Facilitate knowledge-focused management Evaluate Track usage Measure quality and productivity Measure the performance of KM practices Conduct a need assessment review Monitor knowledge management Knowledge type / resources Internal knowledge External knowledge Can be inferred from the step: â€Å" manage knowledge assets † KM processes / activities Identify and collect knowledge Acquire, transform, distribute and apply knowledge KM influences / factors - Can be inferred from the steps: ‘construct incentive programs and ‘facilitate knowledge-focused management ‘-, not indicated or not clearly indicated Table 2.5: Comparisons of hybrid approach frameworks Source: Wong Aspinwall (2004) Rubenstein Montano et al. (2001) Mentzas (2001) Plan Strategize, Model Awareness plan Execute Act, Transfer Develop, operate Evaluate Revise Measurement Knowledge types / resources Tacit knowledge, Explicit knowledge Knowledge assets KM processes / activities KM tasks Process KM influences / factors Culture, Strategy, learning Strategy, Structure, System By study on these knowledge frameworks creator an absolute knowledge management implementation framework may include the possible accesses on success of knowledge management. Further more, the obstacles and developers should bear in their mind that if they want to analyze managers in regard with, which elements are likely to disrupt the knowledge management implementation success and which elements may enable their effort towards knowledge management achievements. Finally, a knowledge management implementation frame work should â€Å"make a correspondence view among social and technological approach to knowledge management†. Consideration of the authors demonstrate that most of the time this correspondence is disturb in favor of one approach while the other approach is either totally neglected or received incomplete attention (Wong Aspinwall, 2004). Different types of knowledge resources are identified. The activities and processes which can help to manage them should be mentioned in the knowledge management implementation framework. As an example, there is some of knowledge management processes such as: acquiring, capturing, creating, organizing, storing, accessing, transferring, sharing, applying, distributing and using knowledge. The suggested clues by Wong and Aspinwall for developing a knowledge management implementation framework include five factors, which are as follows: (1) Incorporate a clear structure to organize the tasks. (2) Address the different knowledge resources or types. (3) Include the knowledge management processes or activities that manipulate the knowledge. (4) Point out the influences that can affect the performance of knowledge management. (5) Provide a balanced view between a technological and a social perspective. 2.4 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS CATEGORIZATION 2.4.1 Knowledge Management System Definition Knowledge management system (KMS), are mostly IT based systems for managing knowledge in organizations and are used for supporting, creating, capturing and disseminating of information. The main concept of knowledge management system (KMS) is to make a facility for employees to have an access to the organizations information, sources, document base facts and their solutions. As a matter of fact a knowledge management system (KMS) could be any of the following things: Ø Social computing tools which can help to create a knowledge management system (KMS). Ø Knowledge management system (KMS), assist in creating network maps in organizations which is used in communication among individuals and entities. Ø Document based, any formatted that permits, control, manage. Ø Use Artificial Intelligence (AI), for customized representation schema to demonstrate the problem domain. Further more, the benefits of using knowledge management in organization can be categorized as: 1. Valuable organizational data and information sharing. 2. Reduce redundant work. 3. Decrease time for new incomers like new employees. 4. Retention of intellectual property. Based on this definition Gupta and Sharma (2004) divide knowledge management system into seven major categories, which are as follows (tables 2.6): Table 2.6: Example of KMS Source: Gupta and Sharma (2004) KMS Technology Description Expert Systems, artificial intelligence and knowledge based management system (KBMS) Main purpose of these systems is to capture knowledge and perform analysis on existing knowledge base to assist in decision making. Often associated to rule based and pattern recognition systems. Computer Supported Collaborative Work (Groupware) Systems that permit sharing and collaborative work. Often described synonymously to Lotus Notes. However, one could suggest that asynchronous (e-mail, wikis e-log) and synchronous systems (videoconference, chat) are newer applications that can fall into this category (Bates and Poole, 2003). Groupware can also include Group Support Systems (GSS) that is intended to support groups make decision (Mandviwalla, 1994). Document Management Systems Systems that support the need for managing text and images to make information much more accessible. Similar to the idea of office management systems i.e. use of various word documentation and spreadsheet software. Decision support systems (DSS) Business applications that usually contain summaries of large amounts of data, filtered and synthesized particularly to support strategic decision-making. View records related to this term5. The focus of DSS is on analysis of quantitative data and presentation tools for managers. Semantic Networks The focus is on systems that explain not just relationships between entities but the meaning based on how the entities are structured. Can be used to â€Å"represent domain knowledge explicitly and shared† (Gupta and Sharma, 2004). Relational and Object oriented databases Systems that permit management of both structured (relational) and much more complex data sets (OODBMS) Simulation tools Systems that run computer based simulations for a variety of purposes. 2.4.2 Knowledge Management Architecture Base on Gupta and Sharma (2004) findings, they suggest architecture for knowledge management which has seven levels and it is shown in table 2.7. Table 2.7: Overview of Knowledge Management Architecture Source: Form Gupta, Sharma Hsu (2004) Level Key Activities Customer Knowledge Detailed, knowledge sharing relationships. Understanding the requirements of customers. Identifying new opportunities. Stakeholder Relationships Becoming a better knowledge flows among suppliers, shareholders, employees, community, etc. Use this knowledge to inform key points strategies. Business Environment Insights Systematic environmental scanning including political, economic, technology, social and environmental trends. Competitor analysis. Market intelligence systems. Organizational Memory Knowledge sharing. Best practice databases. Directories of expertise. Online documents, procedures and discussion forums. Intranets. Knowledge in Processes Embedding knowledge into business processes and management. Decision-making. Knowledge in Products and Services Knowledge embedded in products. Surround products with knowledge, e.g., in user guides, and enhanced knowledge intensive services. Knowledge in People Knowledge-sharing fairs. Innovation workshops. Expert and learning networks. Communities of knowledge practice. As it shows above there is a seven layer for knowledge management architecture and each level related to a particular aspect of knowledge management. So, in this regard there is a summarization for this table which summarize the important part of this layers and compact it in just three layers, it is summarized in table 2.8 as follows: Table 2.8: Knowledge Management Architecture Source: Gupta, Sharma Hsu (2004) Layer Level Brief Explanation Data Sources layer According to different data sources which are accessible within organizations, this layer has both internal and external data sources. As an example, data repository, email repository, databases. Knowledge Management Layer The processes of knowledge management layer include acquisition, refinement, storage, retrieval, distribution and presentation of required knowledge. An example would be a knowledge base which assists decision making processes during an emergency situation. Knowledge Presentation Layer This layer represents the interface that forms the basis of interaction between users and the system. This can be called a knowledge portal that can guide decision making in dealing with an emergency situation. The knowledge portal can be designed to support communication, collaboration and information sharing requirement. There is two more explanation in detailed view for knowledge management architecture and knowledge management process model. The most important part in knowledge management architecture and knowledge management process are capturing knowledge, create a new knowledge, share it and distribute it as it is shown in 2.1 and 2.2. 2.4.3 Performance of Information Technology (IT) in Knowledge Management System (KMS) Information Technology (IT), plays an important role in acquire, store, disseminate and manage knowledge than ever before. Alavi and Leidner (2001), proposed an admired framework, which can be used to analyze and test the role of Information technology (IT) in design and fulfillment of any Knowledge Management System (KMS). The table (2.9) which is adapted from Alavi and Leidner (2001), shows the different perspectives of knowledge management initiatives and knowledge management system (KMS), design particularly. Table 2.9: Knowledge Perspective and impact on KM and KMS Source: Alavi and Leidner (2001, p.11) Perspective Meaning Implication for KM Impact on KMS Role in IT Knowledge vis-à  -vis data and information Data is consider as a fact, raw numbers, information is processed/ contextual data/ interpreted data knowledge is personalized information e.g this would entail once experience and exposure. KM initiative should expose employees to relevant information and facilitate assimilation of information. KMS may not necessarily be different from an existing information system. The differences are that any KMS should help employees assimilate the information. Role of IT is to ensure KMS design permits information assimilation. Knowledge as a state of the mind Knowledge is ones state of knowing and understanding. KM initiative should provide an information base that enables individuals to recognize the existence of knowledge. This can enhance individual learning and understanding. Accessibility to where knowledge resides rather than to knowledge itself- i.e. provide a means to an end. This would include web and wireless access to knowledge base. Knowledge as an object Knowledge that is stored and subject to manipulation. KM initiative should permit development and management of knowledge base. IT can support KMS to gather, store, and disseminate knowledge. This would include the use collaborative tools e.g. wikis. Knowledge as a process Knowledge visualized as a process of applying expertise. KM initiative should focus on effective flow of knowledge within the realms of knowledge creation, sharing and dissemination. by providing links to various knowledge sources which includes internal and external sources. This would include use of web based systems, hyperlinks, markup languages and access to databases. The idea is to offer a wider breadth and depth of knowledge flows Knowledge and accessibility to information Knowledge is a condition of access to information. KM initiative should provide ease of access to and retrieval of content in a given system. IT can be used to enhance indexing, query and locating relevant information. Knowledge as a capability As a capability knowledge has the potential to influence action. KM initiative should focus on developing core competencies and understanding the strategic intent of the initiative. It can increase the intellectual capital through development of individual and organizational competencies. Table 2.9 proposed that Information technology plays an important role in knowledge management initiatives in organizations. Alavi and Leidner (2001) defined a knowledge management system (KMS) as IT- based system develop to support and enhance the organizational processes of knowledge creation. They observe that not all knowledge management initiatives will implement an IT solution, but they support IT as an enabler of knowledge management (Raman, M. Muthaiyah, S.). In addition, knowledge management system (KMS) can assist organizations in dealing with dynamic and complex situations such as emergencies (Gupta Sharma, 2004). 2.4.4 Appropriate Theories to Knowledge Management Systems (KMS) This part consists of two theories which can help to design and implement decisions of any knowledge management systems (KMS) to support knowledge management in organizations. Those mentioned theories are, Information Processing Theory (IPT), and, Contingency Theory. 2.4.4.1 Information Processing Theory (IPT) George A. Miller (1956), has afforded two theoretical ideas which are the basic concepts of the information processing framework and cognitive psychology. The first approach is â€Å"chunking† and the capacity of short term memory. He insists that short term memory can get just 5-9 chunks of information (seven plus or minus two). A chunk could refer to digits, words, peoples faces or any other meaningful units. The second idea which Miller was mentioned is people process information akin to a computerized system. They take input into the memory like the computer, then the human minds take the information, analyze it, store the content and locate it in the best situation of memory and then retrieve as and when needed based on the given situation. In this context, Burnell (2004), state that:†As diversity of resources, processes or outputs increase inter process coordination requirements and system complexity increase. As uncertainty increases, information processing requirements increases become of managements inability to predict every situation.† Information processing theory is widely applied in the study of human learning and cognitive styles (Miller, 1960). As a matter of fact Information Processing Theory (IPT) has some principles which are often applied by instructors for the following reasons: Ø Gain the students attention Ø Point out important and critical chunks of information, separating them from trivial ones. Ø Provide opportunities for students in linking new to existing information. Ø Presenting information in clear manner. Ø Emphasize on meaning of information i.e. not memorizing them. Actually, those mentioned principles for information processing theory can be applied to design of knowledge management system (KMS) to support emergency preparedness as well (Kostman, 2004). Particularly, in approaching emergency situations, knowledge management system can be elaborated to enable decision makers to: Ø Retrieve information that is critical, quickly. Ø Focus on the situation without being loss amidst voluminous information. Ø Create and share a knowledge base by linking past experience to existing information base. Ø Structure emergency related information clearly. Ø Understand different meaning and interpretation of critical terminology used in dealing with an emergency. 2.4.4.2 Contingency Theory Contingency theory was founded by Lawrence and Lorsch (1967), in the study of ten firms in plastic, food, containers, which are three different i Knowledge Management in Malaysia Knowledge Management in Malaysia CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 OVERVIEW It is so difficult and though for the managers of the organizations to apply knowledge management in their departments, because this major is still new in so many aspects such as business environment and organizational culture or behavior and it has a long way to be completed. It is hard for the managers to believe that, it has so many benefits if they use knowledge management tools in their organizations. Managers should bear in their mind that knowledge management is not an automatic practice, it must be initiated by people and have the support of the whole organization. Something like these myths need to be eliminated and the exact meaning of knowledge management must be clearly understood by managers and the rest of the organizations. This will help the managers to abundantly getting help from knowledge management and apply it in the organizations (Sobahle 2005). The study on American Productivity and Quality Centers International Bench-marking shows that, about 11 organizations are working on the knowledge management area which are: Arthur Andersen; Chevron Corporation; Dow Chemical Company; Hughes Space Communications; Kaiser Permanente; Price Waterhouse; Sequent Computer Systems; Skandia AFS; Texas Instruments; USAA; and National Security Agency, the following was recognized (Ishak, 2002): Share the understanding those techniques which can be used. Apply the techniques to new directions. Further more, the other issues which can assure the success of knowledge management initiatives are something like, emphasizes on the issues such as employees issues, top management leadership and commitment, organizational culture and technological infrastructure. This chapter approaches the literature review on knowledge management. In this chapter the try is made to clarify some of the most important key factors of knowledge management and analyze their respective literature. The attempt is made to show the different aspects of knowledge management. It has a brief introduction on knowledge management which is used by Malaysian organizations then it will be explain about the knowledge management frame works and architectures. In this chapter the most two important factors in knowledge management which, technological approach and human approach, are considered. This chapter will finish by the knowledge management concern, issues and at last discuss about the benefit of knowledge management will be considered. 2.2 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN MALAYSIA Over past two decades Malaysia has been transitioning from relying on a production based- economy to a knowledge-based economy (Chang, 2005). The concept of knowledge management in Malaysia was born with the establishment of the â€Å"Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC)† in 1990s to accelerate this concept in Malaysia. Actually, there are so many Malaysian companies which they are working on knowledge management and they realize and understand the importance of it in the professional life. In January 15, 2002, one of the prestigious magazines in Malaysia, Computerworld Malaysia organized the Knowledge Management Roundtable ‘A Vital Strategy or Expensive Toy. The participants from various sectors in Malaysia shared their point of views and approaches implemented and exchanged ideas in practicing knowledge management (Chang, 2005). As an example for the practical aspect, there are a number of organizations in Malaysia which are successful in knowledge management initiatives, such as: Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic Systems (MIMOS), MAMPU, Bank Negara Malaysia, Siemens, Nokia Malaysia and Telekom Malaysia, Tenaga Nasional Berhad and Petroleum Nasional Berhad (Petronas) are examples of organizations in Malaysia that have embarked on KM initiatives. There are so many studies on knowledge management in Malaysia, and the structure of Malaysia papers in Malaysia seems to be incomprehensive, there are a few number of out standing articles to mention, which shows in table 2.1. Table 2.1: Knowledge Management: Malaysian Studies Title Author/ Date/Journal Nature of Work Intellectual capital and business performance in Malaysian industries Bontis, Chua Richardson (2000) Journal of Intellectual Capital Research Study (Conducted among Malaysian firms) Knowledge management in healthcare: towards ‘knowledge-driven decision- support services Abidi, (2001) International Journal of Medical Informatics Case Study (Universiti Sains Malaysia Hospital located in Kota Baharu, Malaysia) Managing human resources toward achieving knowledge management Yahya Goh, (2002) Journal of Knowledge Management Research Study (Conducted among Malaysian firms) Knowledge management in a public organization: a study on the relationship between organizational elements and the performance of knowledge transfer. Syed Ikhsan Rowland, (2004) Journal of Knowledge Management Case Study (Ministry of Entrepreneur development of Malaysia) Benchmarking knowledge management in a public organization in Malaysia Syed Ikhsan Rowland, (2004) Benchmarking: An International Journal Case Study (Ministry of Entrepreneur development of Malaysia) An empirical study of perceived importance and actual implementation of knowledge management process in the Malaysian telecommunication industry Chong Yeow, (2005) Proceedings of ICTM Research Study (Study among Malaysian telecommunication Industry KM critical success factors: A comparison of perceived importance versus implementation in Malaysian ICT companies. Chong, (2006) The Learning Organization Research Study (194 Malaysian ICT companies) KM implementation in Malaysian telecommunication industry an empirical analysis. Wei, Choy Yeow, (2006) Industrial Management Data Systems Research Study (289 employees working in Telecommunication organizations in Malaysia) KM implementation and its influence on performance: an empirical evidence from Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies Chong, (2006) Journal of Information and Knowledge Management Research Study (Study among Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies) Exploring KM issues and KM performance outcomes: empirical evidence from Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies Chong Lin (2006) International Journal of Technology Management Research Study (Study among Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies) An exploratory study on knowledge management adoption in the Malaysian Industry. Wong, (2008) International Journal of Business Information Systems Research Study (exploratory KM survey conducted in the Malaysian industry) 2.3 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IMPLEMENTATION FRAMEWORKS According to Von Krogh (1998), which he takes a business perspective stating that KMS help increase competitiveness, the purpose of implementing KMS in organizations are various. KMS leads to grater innovation and responsiveness, Hackbarth (1998). Davenport and Prusak (1998) provide three reasons why KMS are implemented in organizations which are as follows: Ø To enhance visibility of knowledge in organizations through the use of maps, hypertexts, yellow pages, directories etc. Ø To build a knowledge sharing culture i.e. create avenues for employees to share knowledge. Ø To develop a knowledge infrastructure, not confined to technology solely, rather create an environment that permits collaborative work. These three things which were proposed by Davenport and Prusak (1998) imply that KMS can support an organization in planning for and dealing with emergencies. Many organizations are still wrestling with their knowledge management and failing to realize its full potential. This is due to their lack of the support of strong theoretical foundation to guide them in its implementation (Wong Aspinwall, 2004). Unfortunately, many organizations do not have a clear knowledge management implementation plan in mind (Liebowitz, 1999). Therefore, in order for an organization to be victorious in its effort to manage knowledge, a guiding framework is essential. This is why in this part a review of diverse knowledge management implementation frameworks and models is presented. The framework consents to researchers as well as practitioners to measure the current state of knowledge management effectively and systematically. Thus, the knowledge management framework should provide not only a unified view of knowledge management phenomena but also help investigators study the field of knowledge management in an organized way. There have been few efforts to de velop a framework of knowledge management. However, none of the frameworks can provide a complete and generalized frame for knowledge management by defining fundamental attributes of knowledge management and their interrelationships because knowledge management can be viewed differently on ones background and interests (Chong, 2005). To know the exact value of knowledge management, an architecture of it, would provide the necessary understanding of different components like, knowledge management activities, knowledge management resources, knowledge management influences (Holsapple Joshi, 1997). The improvement of a framework is to follow and track the progress and maturity of knowledge management of an enterprise, so, it would serve to support the industry-wide improvement of knowledge management programs. Further more, it would provide an acceptable frame of reference for the assessment of the adequacies of an organization by government, commercial customers and prime contractors (Chong, 2005). The knowledge management frameworks can be classified under four categories (Table 2.2) Which are namely, knowledge creation framework, knowledge cycle processes of knowledge management, cases on knowledge management initiatives in industry and high-level knowledge management frameworks. Table 2.2: KM Frameworks and their examples in the literature Knowledge Management Frameworks Examples Knowledge Creation Framework Nonaka(1991, 1994), Nonaka Takeuchi (1995) Knowledge Cycle Processes of KM Bose Sugumaran (2003) Cases on KM Initiatives in Industry Apostolou Mentzas (1998), Lai chu (2002) High-Level KM Frameworks Holsapple Joshi (2002), Jarrar (2002), Wiig (1997) Nonaka and Takeuchi are tried to explain the progress and adaption between tacit and explicit knowledge. In fact, knowledge creation framework is not a knowledge management framework, the reason is, and it only deals with the creation of knowledge which is only a share of what constitutes knowledge management. Also, the knowledge cycle processes of knowledge management frameworks are providing a set of activities where the prominence is on the knowledge cycle processes or activities. They mainly address the phases of knowledge flow (from creation to application) in an organization without providing guidance on how to implement knowledge management. The framework on knowledge management initiatives in industry provide a reference to facilitate the structuring, analysis and evaluation of the knowledge management initiatives undertaken in various case companies. Lastly, High-Level knowledge management frameworks are the ones providing more detailed directions on the implementation of kn owledge management. This type of framework seems to address not only the question of what is but also how to because it prescribes and suggest ways for organizations to engage in knowledge management activities (Wong Aspinwall, 2004). In their review of literature, Wong and Aspinwall, try to have an organized review of the various available frameworks for knowledge management implementation. The acceptable thing for the review was to classify the knowledge management implementation frameworks, find out the short comings of each and finally suggesting a through guide line for developing knowledge management implementation frameworks. They have classified the high level knowledge management frameworks as frameworks such as: 1) System approach, 2) Step approach, 3) hybrid approach.(Table 2.3, 2.4, 2.5 shows the comparisons between frameworks under each approach). Table 2.3: Comparisons of system approach frameworks Source: Wong Aspinwall (2004) Holsapple Joshi (2002) Jarrar (2002) Gore Gore (1999) Wiig et al. (1997) Plan - Set strategic priority Define and understand knowledge Formulate vision Conceptualize Reflect Execute - - - Act Evaluate - - - Review Knowledge Types / resources Knowledge embedded in participants, culture, infrastructure, artifacts, purpose and strategy - Tacit Knowledge Explicit knowledge - KM processes / activities Acquire, select, internalize and use knowledge Collect, present, distribute and measure knowledge Mainly focuses on knowledge creation and externalization Develop, distribute, combine and consolidate knowledge KM influences / factors Resource influences, managerial influences, environmental influences Knowledge environment - External and internal developments ‘-, not indicated or not clearly indicated Table 2.4: Comparisons of step approach frameworks Source: Wong Aspinwall (2004) McCampbell et al. (1999) Wiig (1999) Plan Form powerful coalition Communicate vision of KM Establish teams for needs assessment Analyze the needs of KM Obtain management buy-in Survey and map the knowledge landscape Plan the knowledge strategy Create and define knowledge-related alternatives and potential initiatives Portray benefit expectations for knowledge management initiatives Set knowledge management priorities Determine key knowledge requirements Execute Identify and collect knowledge Design a technological structure Test the technology Maintenance of the technology Retest the technology Training of knowledge workers Roll out the use of KM practices Make systems go live Acquire key knowledge Create integrated knowledge transfer programs Transform, distribute and apply knowledge assets Establish and update a KM infrastructure Manage knowledge assets Construct incentive programs Coordinate KM activities and functions enterprise-wide Facilitate knowledge-focused management Evaluate Track usage Measure quality and productivity Measure the performance of KM practices Conduct a need assessment review Monitor knowledge management Knowledge type / resources Internal knowledge External knowledge Can be inferred from the step: â€Å" manage knowledge assets † KM processes / activities Identify and collect knowledge Acquire, transform, distribute and apply knowledge KM influences / factors - Can be inferred from the steps: ‘construct incentive programs and ‘facilitate knowledge-focused management ‘-, not indicated or not clearly indicated Table 2.5: Comparisons of hybrid approach frameworks Source: Wong Aspinwall (2004) Rubenstein Montano et al. (2001) Mentzas (2001) Plan Strategize, Model Awareness plan Execute Act, Transfer Develop, operate Evaluate Revise Measurement Knowledge types / resources Tacit knowledge, Explicit knowledge Knowledge assets KM processes / activities KM tasks Process KM influences / factors Culture, Strategy, learning Strategy, Structure, System By study on these knowledge frameworks creator an absolute knowledge management implementation framework may include the possible accesses on success of knowledge management. Further more, the obstacles and developers should bear in their mind that if they want to analyze managers in regard with, which elements are likely to disrupt the knowledge management implementation success and which elements may enable their effort towards knowledge management achievements. Finally, a knowledge management implementation frame work should â€Å"make a correspondence view among social and technological approach to knowledge management†. Consideration of the authors demonstrate that most of the time this correspondence is disturb in favor of one approach while the other approach is either totally neglected or received incomplete attention (Wong Aspinwall, 2004). Different types of knowledge resources are identified. The activities and processes which can help to manage them should be mentioned in the knowledge management implementation framework. As an example, there is some of knowledge management processes such as: acquiring, capturing, creating, organizing, storing, accessing, transferring, sharing, applying, distributing and using knowledge. The suggested clues by Wong and Aspinwall for developing a knowledge management implementation framework include five factors, which are as follows: (1) Incorporate a clear structure to organize the tasks. (2) Address the different knowledge resources or types. (3) Include the knowledge management processes or activities that manipulate the knowledge. (4) Point out the influences that can affect the performance of knowledge management. (5) Provide a balanced view between a technological and a social perspective. 2.4 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS CATEGORIZATION 2.4.1 Knowledge Management System Definition Knowledge management system (KMS), are mostly IT based systems for managing knowledge in organizations and are used for supporting, creating, capturing and disseminating of information. The main concept of knowledge management system (KMS) is to make a facility for employees to have an access to the organizations information, sources, document base facts and their solutions. As a matter of fact a knowledge management system (KMS) could be any of the following things: Ø Social computing tools which can help to create a knowledge management system (KMS). Ø Knowledge management system (KMS), assist in creating network maps in organizations which is used in communication among individuals and entities. Ø Document based, any formatted that permits, control, manage. Ø Use Artificial Intelligence (AI), for customized representation schema to demonstrate the problem domain. Further more, the benefits of using knowledge management in organization can be categorized as: 1. Valuable organizational data and information sharing. 2. Reduce redundant work. 3. Decrease time for new incomers like new employees. 4. Retention of intellectual property. Based on this definition Gupta and Sharma (2004) divide knowledge management system into seven major categories, which are as follows (tables 2.6): Table 2.6: Example of KMS Source: Gupta and Sharma (2004) KMS Technology Description Expert Systems, artificial intelligence and knowledge based management system (KBMS) Main purpose of these systems is to capture knowledge and perform analysis on existing knowledge base to assist in decision making. Often associated to rule based and pattern recognition systems. Computer Supported Collaborative Work (Groupware) Systems that permit sharing and collaborative work. Often described synonymously to Lotus Notes. However, one could suggest that asynchronous (e-mail, wikis e-log) and synchronous systems (videoconference, chat) are newer applications that can fall into this category (Bates and Poole, 2003). Groupware can also include Group Support Systems (GSS) that is intended to support groups make decision (Mandviwalla, 1994). Document Management Systems Systems that support the need for managing text and images to make information much more accessible. Similar to the idea of office management systems i.e. use of various word documentation and spreadsheet software. Decision support systems (DSS) Business applications that usually contain summaries of large amounts of data, filtered and synthesized particularly to support strategic decision-making. View records related to this term5. The focus of DSS is on analysis of quantitative data and presentation tools for managers. Semantic Networks The focus is on systems that explain not just relationships between entities but the meaning based on how the entities are structured. Can be used to â€Å"represent domain knowledge explicitly and shared† (Gupta and Sharma, 2004). Relational and Object oriented databases Systems that permit management of both structured (relational) and much more complex data sets (OODBMS) Simulation tools Systems that run computer based simulations for a variety of purposes. 2.4.2 Knowledge Management Architecture Base on Gupta and Sharma (2004) findings, they suggest architecture for knowledge management which has seven levels and it is shown in table 2.7. Table 2.7: Overview of Knowledge Management Architecture Source: Form Gupta, Sharma Hsu (2004) Level Key Activities Customer Knowledge Detailed, knowledge sharing relationships. Understanding the requirements of customers. Identifying new opportunities. Stakeholder Relationships Becoming a better knowledge flows among suppliers, shareholders, employees, community, etc. Use this knowledge to inform key points strategies. Business Environment Insights Systematic environmental scanning including political, economic, technology, social and environmental trends. Competitor analysis. Market intelligence systems. Organizational Memory Knowledge sharing. Best practice databases. Directories of expertise. Online documents, procedures and discussion forums. Intranets. Knowledge in Processes Embedding knowledge into business processes and management. Decision-making. Knowledge in Products and Services Knowledge embedded in products. Surround products with knowledge, e.g., in user guides, and enhanced knowledge intensive services. Knowledge in People Knowledge-sharing fairs. Innovation workshops. Expert and learning networks. Communities of knowledge practice. As it shows above there is a seven layer for knowledge management architecture and each level related to a particular aspect of knowledge management. So, in this regard there is a summarization for this table which summarize the important part of this layers and compact it in just three layers, it is summarized in table 2.8 as follows: Table 2.8: Knowledge Management Architecture Source: Gupta, Sharma Hsu (2004) Layer Level Brief Explanation Data Sources layer According to different data sources which are accessible within organizations, this layer has both internal and external data sources. As an example, data repository, email repository, databases. Knowledge Management Layer The processes of knowledge management layer include acquisition, refinement, storage, retrieval, distribution and presentation of required knowledge. An example would be a knowledge base which assists decision making processes during an emergency situation. Knowledge Presentation Layer This layer represents the interface that forms the basis of interaction between users and the system. This can be called a knowledge portal that can guide decision making in dealing with an emergency situation. The knowledge portal can be designed to support communication, collaboration and information sharing requirement. There is two more explanation in detailed view for knowledge management architecture and knowledge management process model. The most important part in knowledge management architecture and knowledge management process are capturing knowledge, create a new knowledge, share it and distribute it as it is shown in 2.1 and 2.2. 2.4.3 Performance of Information Technology (IT) in Knowledge Management System (KMS) Information Technology (IT), plays an important role in acquire, store, disseminate and manage knowledge than ever before. Alavi and Leidner (2001), proposed an admired framework, which can be used to analyze and test the role of Information technology (IT) in design and fulfillment of any Knowledge Management System (KMS). The table (2.9) which is adapted from Alavi and Leidner (2001), shows the different perspectives of knowledge management initiatives and knowledge management system (KMS), design particularly. Table 2.9: Knowledge Perspective and impact on KM and KMS Source: Alavi and Leidner (2001, p.11) Perspective Meaning Implication for KM Impact on KMS Role in IT Knowledge vis-à  -vis data and information Data is consider as a fact, raw numbers, information is processed/ contextual data/ interpreted data knowledge is personalized information e.g this would entail once experience and exposure. KM initiative should expose employees to relevant information and facilitate assimilation of information. KMS may not necessarily be different from an existing information system. The differences are that any KMS should help employees assimilate the information. Role of IT is to ensure KMS design permits information assimilation. Knowledge as a state of the mind Knowledge is ones state of knowing and understanding. KM initiative should provide an information base that enables individuals to recognize the existence of knowledge. This can enhance individual learning and understanding. Accessibility to where knowledge resides rather than to knowledge itself- i.e. provide a means to an end. This would include web and wireless access to knowledge base. Knowledge as an object Knowledge that is stored and subject to manipulation. KM initiative should permit development and management of knowledge base. IT can support KMS to gather, store, and disseminate knowledge. This would include the use collaborative tools e.g. wikis. Knowledge as a process Knowledge visualized as a process of applying expertise. KM initiative should focus on effective flow of knowledge within the realms of knowledge creation, sharing and dissemination. by providing links to various knowledge sources which includes internal and external sources. This would include use of web based systems, hyperlinks, markup languages and access to databases. The idea is to offer a wider breadth and depth of knowledge flows Knowledge and accessibility to information Knowledge is a condition of access to information. KM initiative should provide ease of access to and retrieval of content in a given system. IT can be used to enhance indexing, query and locating relevant information. Knowledge as a capability As a capability knowledge has the potential to influence action. KM initiative should focus on developing core competencies and understanding the strategic intent of the initiative. It can increase the intellectual capital through development of individual and organizational competencies. Table 2.9 proposed that Information technology plays an important role in knowledge management initiatives in organizations. Alavi and Leidner (2001) defined a knowledge management system (KMS) as IT- based system develop to support and enhance the organizational processes of knowledge creation. They observe that not all knowledge management initiatives will implement an IT solution, but they support IT as an enabler of knowledge management (Raman, M. Muthaiyah, S.). In addition, knowledge management system (KMS) can assist organizations in dealing with dynamic and complex situations such as emergencies (Gupta Sharma, 2004). 2.4.4 Appropriate Theories to Knowledge Management Systems (KMS) This part consists of two theories which can help to design and implement decisions of any knowledge management systems (KMS) to support knowledge management in organizations. Those mentioned theories are, Information Processing Theory (IPT), and, Contingency Theory. 2.4.4.1 Information Processing Theory (IPT) George A. Miller (1956), has afforded two theoretical ideas which are the basic concepts of the information processing framework and cognitive psychology. The first approach is â€Å"chunking† and the capacity of short term memory. He insists that short term memory can get just 5-9 chunks of information (seven plus or minus two). A chunk could refer to digits, words, peoples faces or any other meaningful units. The second idea which Miller was mentioned is people process information akin to a computerized system. They take input into the memory like the computer, then the human minds take the information, analyze it, store the content and locate it in the best situation of memory and then retrieve as and when needed based on the given situation. In this context, Burnell (2004), state that:†As diversity of resources, processes or outputs increase inter process coordination requirements and system complexity increase. As uncertainty increases, information processing requirements increases become of managements inability to predict every situation.† Information processing theory is widely applied in the study of human learning and cognitive styles (Miller, 1960). As a matter of fact Information Processing Theory (IPT) has some principles which are often applied by instructors for the following reasons: Ø Gain the students attention Ø Point out important and critical chunks of information, separating them from trivial ones. Ø Provide opportunities for students in linking new to existing information. Ø Presenting information in clear manner. Ø Emphasize on meaning of information i.e. not memorizing them. Actually, those mentioned principles for information processing theory can be applied to design of knowledge management system (KMS) to support emergency preparedness as well (Kostman, 2004). Particularly, in approaching emergency situations, knowledge management system can be elaborated to enable decision makers to: Ø Retrieve information that is critical, quickly. Ø Focus on the situation without being loss amidst voluminous information. Ø Create and share a knowledge base by linking past experience to existing information base. Ø Structure emergency related information clearly. Ø Understand different meaning and interpretation of critical terminology used in dealing with an emergency. 2.4.4.2 Contingency Theory Contingency theory was founded by Lawrence and Lorsch (1967), in the study of ten firms in plastic, food, containers, which are three different i